Violence In Schools

Schools are one of the safest places for our children. Despite the recent spate of horrific violence and school shootings, which have demonstrated that even schools are not completely safe, less than 1 percent of all violent deaths of children accur on school grounds. Still, we recognize that the devastating impact of violence and drugs on our schools cannot be tolerated at any level. Some schools do experience a high level of community violence that spills into them. This is particularly true of schools in neighborhoods that have suffered from the recent epidemics of youth gun violence and crack cocaine.

But it is perhaps most true of schools that even low levels of disorder (the broken windows theory) can be as destructive to a community as serious criminality. For teachers and students, bullying and fear of violence corrode the entire pedagogical process--a system that rests on free inquiry and trust. Our system of public education is the linchpin of civic society, where students internalize values of tolerance and civic participation.

For prevention professionals, to the extent that youth violence presents a public health threat, schools constitute the one institution where intervention can have a systematic impact. Asking schools to shoulder the burden of preventing substance abuse and violence adds to their existing burden. But educators, counselors, and health care professionals cannot avoid taking a stand without risking the central purpose of schools: a viable education.

The mass killings at five public schools (all in rural or suburban settings) across the country from December 1997 to May 1999 were a wake-up call. The resources listed in this guide may help us answer that call and ensure a safe learnign environment in our schools.

Nelba Chavez, Ph.D.
Administrator
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

Ruth Sanchez-Way, Ph.D.
Acting Director, Substance Abuse and Mental Health services Administration

MS713

The listing of materials of programs in this resource guide does not constitute or imply endorsement by the Center fro Substance Abuse Prevention, the Public Health Service, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, or the Department of Health and Human Services. The materials have been reviewed for accuracy, appropriateness, and conformance with public health principals.

This Substance Abuse Resource Guide was compiled from a variety of publications and data bases and represents the most current inforamtion to date. It is not an all-inclusive listing of materials on this topic. This guide will be updated regularly, and your comments or suggestions are welcome. To suggest information or materails that might be included in future editions, please write to SAMHSA's National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information (NCADI), P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20847-2345.

Produced by SAMHSA's National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, Lucinda Myers, editor.

For further information on alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs, call 800-729-6686, 301-468-2600, or TDD 800-487-4889. Or visit us on our World Wide Web Site at http://ncadi.samhsa.gov.

Books

Safe at School: Awareness and Action for Parents

Each year in schools across the United States, more than 3 million crimes are committed, over 9,000 fires break out, and hundreds of thousands of students are injured. Administrations are overwhelmed, under funded, and sometimes unresponsive. This book teaches parents what they can do to combat violence and make schools safer. Safe at School gives parents the knowledge and skills they need to take action, be heard, and get results. It covers a myriad of school safety problems-guns, drugs, supervision, disaster preparation, sexual harassment, asbestos in the air, lead in the water, bullies, class trips, school maintenance, and many more. Step-by-step action plans explain how to identify safety problems at your child's school, how to form a parent safety group, and how to hold schools accountable for your child's safety.

Author: Silverman, C.
Year: 1999
Format: Paperback book
Length: 224 pages
Topic: Creating safer schools
Target Audience: Parents of school-aged children

Availability: Bookstores
Cost: $12.95

School Safety Workbook

The School Safety Workbook highlights prevention models that show promise toward stemming the rising tide of school crime and violence. The featured programs can be used as a starting point for developing effective programs tailored to each school, student population and community. The 100 school and community based programs target conflict resolution, gang prevention, social responsibility, substance abuse prevention, and truancy reduction. It also includes contact information for national violence prevention resources and organizations.

Year: 1998
Format: Book
Length: 142 pages
Topic: School safety
Target Audience: School officials

Availability: National School Safety Center, 141 Duesenberg Drive, Suite 11, Westlake Village, CA 91362; 805-373-9977;http://www.nssc1.org
Cost: $20

Violence in American Schools: A New Perspective

In this volume, experts review the latest research on the causes of youth violence in the Nation's schools and on school-based interventions that have prevented or re-duced it. They describe and evaluate strategies for preventing and treating violence that go beyond punishment and incarceration. The volume offers a new strategy for tackling youth violence, arguing that the most effective interventions use a comprehensive, multi-disciplinary approach and take into account differences in stages of individual development and involvement in overlapping social contexts.

Editor: Elliott, D.; Hamburg, B.; and Williams, K.
Year: 1998.
Format: Paperback book.
Length: 400 pages.
Topic: Understanding and preventing violence in schools.
Target Audience: Educators, school officials, public policy makers, general audience.

Availability: Bookstores or Cambridge University Press, 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211; 212-924-3900;http://www.cup.org.
Cost: $19.95

School Violence Intervention: A Practical Handbook

This book provides effective intervention strategies for managing school violence. Opening with perspectives on student aggression from different school practitioners, this resource presents practical interventions at the student, school, and system levels. Strategies are presented for a wide array of situations and contexts, enabling the work to be applied to almost any school setting.

Author: Goldstein, A.; and Conoley, J.
Year: 1997
Format: Book
Length: 495 pages and default
Topic: Preventing violence in schools
Target Audience: Teachers, school administrators, parents

Availability: Bookstores or contact Guilford Publications, 72 Spring Street, New York, NY 10012; 800-365-7006;http://www.guilford.com
Cost: $55

Schools, Violence, and Society

This book is designed to examine issues related to schools, violence, and society. Since the 1960s, crime and violence have been increasing in America's schools. This violence is not limited to inner city schools, but has struck virtually every strata and socio-economic level of American culture and society. This volume reviews violence in society, school violence, and crime. Coverage includes past trends in school violence and the current extent of the problem, as well as aspects of its causes and prevention. The influence (on the students and community) of gang activity, gang related issues, drugs, alcohol, and weapons on campus is discussed.

Author: Hoffman, A.
Year: 1996
Format: Book
Length: 376
Topic: Relationship between schools and violence
Target Audience: General audience

Availability: Bookstores or contact Greenwood Publishing Group, 88 Post West Road, Westport, CT 06881; 203-226-3571; http://www.greenwood.com
Cost: $26.95

Antisocial Behavior at School: Strategies and Best Practices

This indispensable resource describes the "best practices" for coping with antisocial behavior patterns among children and youth in school. Designed to enhance educators' understanding of the nature, origins, and causes of antisocial behavior, this book offers interventions and model programs that can be used in preventing or remediating this growing problem in the schools.

Author: Colvin, G; Ramsey, E.; and Ramsey-Walker, H.
Year: 1995
Format: Book
Length: 420 pages
Topic: Unacceptable student behavior in schools
Target Audience: Teachers, school administrators, parents

Availability: Bookstores or contact Brooks/Cole Publishing, 511 Forest Lodge Road, Pacific Grove, CA 93950; 800-354-9706;
Cost: $61

Booklets, Brochures, Fact Sheets, and Reports

The School Shootings and Beyond: Kids and Guns in America violence in America

This fact sheet gives information about the epidemic of school.

Year: 2000
Format: Fact sheet
Length: 1 page
Topic: School violence
Target Audience:

Availability: Handgun Control and the Center to Prevent Handgun Violence, 1225 I Street NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005; 202-898-0792;
Cost: Free

Warning Signs

In an attempt to proactively address the problem of violence, Music Television (MTV) and the American Psychological Association created the program Warning Signs. Originally created in conjunction with a special program aired on MTV, this guide continues to stand alone as an excellent reference concerning the warning signs of violence. It gives overviews of many different aspects of violence prevention, including violence against self, dealing with anger, and reasons for violence.

Organization: American Psychological Association and MTV
Year: 1999
Format: Guide
Length: 9 pages
Topic: Recognizing problem behaviors in teens
Target Audience: Parents, teachers, community leaders, prevention program planners

Availability: American Psychological Association Help Center,http://helping.apa.org
Cost: Free

Annual Report on School Safety

The Annual Report on School Safety provides parents, schools, and the community with an overview of school crime, and describes actions schools and communities can take to address this critical issue. Steps for developing and implementing a comprehensive school safety plan are described. The report profiles programs that include school security, education in violence prevention, counseling, and special student services.

Year: 1998
Format: Report
Length: 48 pages
Topic: School safety
Target Audience: Community leaders, teachers, parents, school administrators

Availability: Department of Education, 400 Maryland Avenue, SW., Washington, DC 20202, 800-USALEARN, http://www.ed.gov

Cost: Free

Back to School 1998-National Survey of American Attitudes on Substance Abuse IV: Teens, Teachers, and Principals

For the fourth straight year, responding to an open-ended question, more 12- to 17-year-olds named drugs the most important problem they face, over social pressures, violence, crime, or any other issue. One of a continuing series, this survey of teens, teachers, and principals is an attempt to increase understanding of the causes and ef-fects of substance abuse. A foreword by Joseph A. Califano, Jr., highlights important issues and suggests approaches to solutions. Key findings are listed, and an overview provides a preview of the findings of the survey.

Author: Booth, A.; and Califano, J.
Year: 1998
Format: Report
Length: 100 pages
Topic: Youth and substance abuse
Target Audience: Parents, teachers, general audience

Availability: National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, 152 West 57th St., New York, NY 10019-3310; http://www.casacolumbia.org
Cost: $22

NEA Action Sheet: Safe Schools

In this publication, the National Education Association discusses the causes of and ways to prevent school violence.

Year: 1998
Format: Action sheet
Length: 4 pages
Topic: School violence
Target Audience: School officials

Availability: National Education Association, 1201 16th Street, NW., Washington, DC 20036; 202-833-4000; http://www.nea.org Cost: Free

Early Warning, Timely Response: A Guide to Safe Schools

This guide contains early warning signs that can help adults identify and reach out to troubled children quickly and effectively to reduce the likelihood of school violence. The guide is issued jointly by the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Department of Justice. It is also available in Spanish.

Organization: U.S. Department of Education
Year: 1998
Format: Report
Length: 40 pages
Topic: Warning signs of troubled children
Target Audience: Parents, teachers, school administrators, other concerned adults

Availability: U.S. Department of Education, 400 Maryland Avenue, SW., Washington, DC, 20202; 800-USALEARN; http://www.ed.gov
Cost: Free

High School Youths, Weapons, and Violence: A National Survey

Using a 1996 survey of male 10th and 11th graders from 53 high schools nationwide, this study examined the firearms experience of these youths. The number of respondents who carried or possessed a gun was relatively low compared with previous studies; 29 percent possessed at least one firearm, and 6 percent had carried a gun outside the home. Gun possession levels were highest for firearms more suited to hunting and sporting uses. Recreational gun use, more common in rural and smaller communities, was related to gun-carrying and possession levels of every type of firearm. Gun-carrying and possession were more prevalent in smaller communities; however, once the rec-reational gun use variable was held constant, gun possession among respondents declined. Fifty percent of the juveniles surveyed believed that they could obtain firearms relatively easily. Family and friends were the primary sources of guns. Criminal behavior characterized only a small number of the respondents. A few juveniles reported that they carried weapons to gain respect from their peers, but for the majority of respondents, the primary reason for carrying or possessing firearms was protection, not criminal activity or status enhancement. The majority of school administrators recalled incidents that involved guns on school grounds in the past 3 years, but only two percent considered guns a serious problem on school grounds.

Author: Sheley, J.; Wright, J.
Year: 1998
Format: Report
Length: 8 pages
Topic: Youth and firearms
Target Audience: Community leaders, prevention program planners

Availability: National Criminal Justice Research Service, P.O. Box 6000, Rockville, MD 20849-6000; 800-851-3420; http://www.ncjrs.org
Also available online at http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles/172857.pdf
Cost: Free

Safe Schools, Safe Students: A Guide to Violence Prevention Strategies

This guide offers a systematic approach to violence prevention in schools. It is designed to assist school officials in choosing prevention strategies that will best meet the specific needs of their students. Based on a comprehensive review of the prevention literature on violence, juvenile delinquency, and substance abuse, it also incorporates interviews with 15 violence prevention experts. The guide provides an assessment of comprehensive health programs, programs designed for the K-12 environment, and peer mediation programs.

Year: 1998
Format: Booklet
Length: 56 pages
Topic: Preventing violence in schools
Target Audience: Parents, teachers, and school administrators

Availability: Drug Strategies, 1575 I Street, Suite 210, Washington, DC 20005; 202-289-9070; http://www.ndsn.org/ Cost: Free

Hate-Motivated Behavior in Schools-Response Strategies for School Boards, Administrators, Law Enforcement, and Communities

Schools are not immune to acts of hate violence that threaten the collaborative spirit needed to build understanding among California's many cultures, races, and religions. This resource guide is designed to be used by school district administrators, school boards, law enforcement agencies, and community-based organizations to promote discussion, planning, immediate action, and effective long-term responses to hate-motivated incidents on campus. Schools and districts can use this guide to examine their existing programs and policies and to develop effective procedures for dealing with hate-motivated behavior and crime.

Organization: California Department of Education
Year: 1997
Format: Booklet
Length: 32 pages
Topic: Violence in schools
Target Audience: Education professionals, counselors, parents, and general public

Availability: California Department of Education, 721 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, CA 95814; 916-657-2451
Cost: $10

Solutions for Youth Violence for Schools and Communities

This booklet teaches concerned adults to reduce youth violence in family, school, and community environments. This valuable resource provides information on causes, risk indicators, and increases in different types of violence, including the roles that alcohol and drug use play.

Year: 1997
Format: Booklet
Length: 48 pages
Topic: Violence prevention
Target Audience: General audience

Availability: WRS Group, P.O. Box 21207, Waco, TX 76702-1207; 800-299-3366;http://www.wrsgroup.com
Cost: $5.95

Magazines and Newsletters

Challenge: Creating Safe and Drug Free Schools

This online newsletter is dedicated to making every school in America safe and drug free.

Year: Posted monthly
Format: Electronic newsletter
Length: Varies
Topic: Safe and drug-free schools Target Audience: Parents, teachers, school administrators

Availability: American Council for Drug Education, 164 W. 74th Street, New York, NY 10023; http://www.acde.org
Cost: Free

SafetyZone Newsletter

This newsletter is a quarterly publication of the National Resource Center for Safe Schools. It includes updates on Center projects, workshops, planning tools, publications, and relevant coverage of national events.

Year: Published quarterly
Format: Newsletter
Length: Varies
Topic: Safety in schools
Target Audience: Teachers and school administrators

Availability: E-mail safetyzoneeditor@nwrel.org, or contact the National Resource Center for Safe Schools, 101 SW. Main, Portland, OR 97204; 800-268-2275;
Cost: Free

School Safety News Service

This publication offers in-depth coverage on topical issues related to school safety including background information, research, and model programs. Also included are prevention strategies related to violence prevention, crime management, gangs, attendance, discipline, schoolyard bullying, high-risk youth, and other concerns vital to the safety of all school children. Along with the nine issues of the magazine, the subscription price includes a School Safety Yearbook, published in the summer. It highlights the year's trends and issues in the field of school crime and violence prevention.

Year: Published 9 months a year
Format: News journal
Length: Varies
Topic: Issues related to school safety
Target Audience: School officials, teachers

Availability: National School Safety Center, 141 Duesenberg Drive, Suite 11, Westlake Village, CA 91362; http://www.nssc1.org; 805-373-9977
Cost: $99

Classroom Materials and Kits

Steps to Prevent Firearm Injury, STOP II

This education program is designed for all health care providers from a wide range of disciplines (nurses, social workers, psychologists, health educators, counselors, etc.) who work with diverse populations. In the United States, nearly 100 people die in shootings everyday. Health providers, natural messengers of safety and health information, have the daily opportunity to speak with patients/clients and their families about guns. Materials in the kit include ways to counsel pa-tients/clients about the dangers of guns in the home.

Year: 2000
Format: Kit
Length: Several materials
Topic: Gun safety
Target Audience: Health care providers

Availability: Center to Prevent Handgun Violence-Education Program, 1225 I Street, NW., Suite 1100, Washington, DC 20005; 202-289-7319;
Cost: Free to health care providers

Ready-to-Use Violence Prevention Skills, Lessons, and Activities for Elementary Students

This book contains a series of worksheets and answer keys developed with appropriate messages for elementary school teachers and their students. Examples of topics covered include: understanding rules, bad habits, avoiding bullys, learning that actions have consequences, and help recognizing drugs.

Editor: Begun, R.; Huml, F.; and Huppuch, W.
Organization: Center for the Applied Research in Education
Year: 1999
Format: Activity book
Length: 256 pages
Topic: Preventing violence in schools
Target Audience: Elementary school teachers

Availability: Bookstores
Cost: $27.95

W.A.R.N. -- Weapons Are Removed Now

This complete implementation program is designed to reduce violence and weapons in schools. It features an introductory videotape explaining how to start a W.A.R.N. program; four posters that encourage students to "break the code of silence"; and a detailed handbook, all contained in a convenient three-ring binder. The video features interviews and performances by actual W.A.R.N. members and gives hard facts about violence. The handbook includes guidelines for creating a W.A.R.N. program; student training materials; program announcements; letters to parents to encourage cooperation; and an anti-violence contract to be signed by the principal, parents, and students. The posters are a constant daily reminder of each student's obligation to reporting weapons on campus.

Year: 1994
Format: Kit
Length: 1 video (8 minutes), 1 handbook, 4 posters
Topic: Removing weapons from schools
Target Audience: School administrators, teachers, parents

Availability: Syndistar, 5801 River Road, New Orleans, LA 70123; 800-841-9532;
Cost: $95

Videos, Posters, and Other Items

Clarence and Guns

Clarence is a teenager who needs help getting safely through his day. In this interactive computer game, users make decisions and guide Clarence through a seemingly normal day. However, in each situation, Clarence comes into contact with a gun at school, at soccer practice, and hanging out at his friend's house. At each turn, the game reiterates that the correct decision for children is to never touch a gun and tell an adult immediately when they see one.

Year: 2000
Format: Interactive computer game
Topic: Gun safety
Target Audience: Teenagers

Availability: Available on the Center to Prevent Handgun Violence Web site at http://www.cphv.org/ game/default_0.aspx
Cost: Free

NEA Safe Schools Now Network

This set of videos from the National Education Association provides steps detailing how to create safe schools. The videos are titled Reasons for Hope, Episode 1; Building a Safe and Responsive School Climate, Episode 2; Early Signs of Distress, Episode 3; Forging Community Alliances, Episode 4. Each one tells the story of individual communities (including Littleton, Colorado), how they created safe schools, and describes the actions necessary to recreate those successes in other schools.

Organization: National Education Association
Year: 2000
Format: Video
Length: 43 minutes (each)
Topic: Creating safe schools
Target Audience: Educators, community leaders, parents

Availability: National Education Association, 1201 16th Street, NW., Washington, DC 20036; 202-833-4000; http://www.nea.org
Cost: $19.95 (each)

Slaughter at Schools

This video examines the spate of recently publicized school shootings with the help of experts like psychiatrist Diane Schetky, school officials, and the reporters who covered the stories. It also includes interviews with witnesses of the violence, and a debate about what can be done to prevent future acts of violence.

Year: 1999
Format: Video
Length: 50 minutes
Topic: School-based violence prevention
Target Audience: General audience

Availability: Library Video Company, 7 East Wynnewood Road, Wynnewood, PA 19096; 800-843-3620; http://www.libraryvideo.com
Cost: $19.95

School Crisis: Under Control

This video combines news footage of school crises with insights and reco-mmendations from school officials who have dealt firsthand with violent tragedies on their campuses. They cover topics such as outlining staff roles and responsibilities, dealing with the media, providing adequate communication systems and signals, arranging transportation and offering grief counseling.

Year: 1991
Format: Video
Length: 25 minutes
Topic: School violence
Target Audience: School officials

Availability: National School Safety Center, 141 Duesenberg Drive, Suite 11, Westlake Village, CA 91362; 805-373-9977; http://www.nssc1.org
Cost: $75

Weapons in Our Schools: Examining the Problem

An investigative look at why young people carry weapons and what schools can do about the problem.

Year: 1996
Format: Video
Length: 19 minutes
Topic: Weapons in schools
Target Audience: Parents, teachers, students, other concerned adults

Availability: Syndistar, 5801 River Road, New Orleans, LA 70123; 800-841-9532;
Cost: $79.95

Studies and Articles

Predicting the Fear of Assault at School and While Going to and from School in an Adolescent Population
Alvarez, A.; Bachman, R.
Violence & Victims: 12(1): 69-86, 1998

Recent research investigating the fear of crime has shown that when crime- and behavior-specific measures of fear are used, the young are more fearful than the elderly. Research investigating the etiology of fear within adolescent populations, however, remains very limited. Using a sample of more than 10,000 junior high and high school students from a supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey, this paper examines the factors contributing to students' fear of assault both at school and while going to and from school. Results indicate that recent victimization experiences, the presence of a violent subculture at the school (e.g., gang presence and attacks on teachers), and availability of drugs or alcohol were related to fear in both contexts. The predictability of fear from individual characteristics, however, was context-specific. Contrary to findings from earlier research, the authors found that young females were not more fearful than their male counterparts in all contexts. While they were more fearful of an attack while going to and from school, there were no differences in fear levels while at school between males and females after controlling for other environmental and experiential factors. Conclusions largely support the contention that fear is a rational calculation based on objective criteria.

Predictive Model of Weapon Carrying Among Urban High School Students: Results and Validation
Griffith, J.; Kulig, J.; Ruthazer, R.; Valentine, J.
Journal of Adolescent Health: 22(4): 312-319, 1998

This study identified the behavioral, psychosocial, and demographic predictors of self-reported weapon-carrying among students in two urban public high schools. It assessed weapon-carrying; demographic profile; psychosocial status; 30-day use of alcohol, tobacco, and other substances; interpersonal violence; sexual behavior; and school involvement among 487 students in the first high school and 702 students in the second high school. A predictive model was developed in the first high school, which was tested in the second high school. Results from the model-building and validation showed that (1) weapon carrying is associated with multiple and interrelated factors which include demographic, psychosocial, behavioral, and school-related characteristics of high school age adolescents; (2) students with more risk factors are more likely to carry a weapon, suggesting that the variables are independent markers; and (3) marijuana use and sexual experience are both highly predictive of weapon-carrying.

Schools are Vulnerable to Cultures of Violence
Collier, M.W.
School Safety (Winter): 9-13, 1998

This article summarizes a 1997 study of school violence at four public high schools in Miami-Dade County. Crime statistics, interviews with Miami-Dade police, and student focus groups show that in three of the four schools the surrounding neighborhoods were extremely violent and crime ridden. The same three schools also had high levels of school violence. On the basis of evidence on high levels of school violence and the presence of discourses of denial, noncaring atmospheres, and remiss security forces, the study determined the three high schools to have strong school cultures of violence. This article concludes that by confronting the key factors that contribute to creating school cultures of violence and combining these actions with strategies related to improving school security and student intervention programs, school officials may yet eliminate school violence and associated student fear.

Vulnerability to Victimization, Concurrent Problem Behaviors, and Peer Influence as Predictors of In-School Weapon Carrying Among High School Students
Simon, T.; Dent, C.; and Sussman, S.
Violence and Victims: 12(3): 277-289, 1998

Data on 504 students from seven high schools in southern California were used to study the relationship between weapon-carrying and general juvenile delinquency, self-protection, and social influence. The data revealed that 25 percent of the students carried a weapon to school in the past year. Self-defense was the most commonly reported reason for in-school weapon carrying. Results from a simultaneous logistic regression analysis indicated increased risk of in-school weapon carrying among students who were male, who were affiliated with gangs or tagging crews, who were exposed to peers who carried weapons to school, and who felt vulnerable to being victimized. Findings indicated that prevention programs targeted at reducing in-school weapon carrying may benefit from a comprehensive focus that includes efforts to reduce involvement in other problem behaviors, influence norms regarding weapon carrying, and reduce actual and perceived vulnerability to victimization.

The Association of Weapon Carrying and Fighting on School Property and Other Health Risk and Problem Behaviors Among High School Students
DuRant, R.; Kahn, J.; Beckford, P.; and Woods, E.
Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine: 151(4): 360-366, 1997

This study examines the association between weapon carrying on school property and engaging in health risk and problem behaviors such as fighting and substance use on school property, fear of attending school, and victimization at school. It used a complex two-stage probability survey (the Massachusetts Youth Risk Behavior Survey) and a sample of 3,054 Massachusetts high school students. The prevalence of self-reported weapon-carrying on school property was 15 percent among male students and 5 percent among female students.

Profile of Rural Texas Adolescents Who Carry Handguns to School
Heuberger, G.; Kingery, P.; Pruitt, B.E.
Journal of School Health: 66(1): 18-22, 1997

Students in randomly selected 8th and 10th grade English classrooms in central Texas schools were surveyed in fall 1994 about carrying weapons to school and associated risk factors. Students who carried a handgun to school one or more times during the preceding 12 months were compared with those who had not done so, using discriminant analysis and chisquare. Gun-carrying at school increased 138 percent from 7 years earlier in the same area using the same survey procedures. Most students reported they carried a gun out of fear or anger. Those who carried a gun at school had extremely elevated rates of repeated victimization during the previous year. They also were more likely to enter dangerous situations repeatedly, were 17 times more likely to have used crack cocaine, had less instruction on preventing violence, had less knowledge about means of avoiding fighting, and felt an obligation to fight under a wider variety of situations. Researchers concluded that efforts at prevention of handgun violence in schools should increase the safety of a select group of vulnerable students, while providing psychological counseling to assist them in overcoming emotional effects of victimization as part of larger violence prevention efforts.

Response of African-American Adolescents in North Carolina to Gun Carrying by School Mates
Cotten, N.; Martin, S.; McCarraher, D.; and Sadowski, L.
Journal of School Health: 66(1): 23-26, 1997

This study examined adolescents' perceptions about the presence of guns in their school and the adolescents' emotional and behavioral responses associated with these perceptions. Survey data from 376 African-American 6th, 7th, and 8th grade students of a low-income area of a North Carolina city were studied. Twenty-eight percent reported that other students brought guns to school, 36 percent felt afraid that someone would hurt or attack them while at school, 15 percent avoided school (or places in school) because of fear that a student would hurt or attack them, and 20 percent carried weapons to school for self-protection. Logistic regression analyses found that, compared with their peers, adolescents who perceived that their schoolmates brought guns to school were almost twice as likely to experience fear while at school, were more than three times more likely to exhibit school avoidance behavior, and were more than twice as likely to bring a weapon to school themselves for self-protection. Educators and school health professionals are urged to work together to address these problems concerning school safety.

School Violence: Prevalence and Intervention Strategies for At-Risk Adolescents
Cirillo, K.J.
Adolescence: 33(130): 318-390, 1997

This study investigated the effects of social cognitive group intervention on violence avoidance beliefs among at-risk adolescents. Fifty high school students were randomly assigned to an experimental or a control group. The experimental group participated in 10, 2-hour weekly sessions of a social cognitive intervention. Both groups were administered a questionnaire before, immediately following, and 3 months after the intervention. Findings showed that the social cognitive intervention did not result in significant differences between the groups on violence avoidance beliefs at posttest or follow-up. In addition, drug/alcohol users and nonusers, fighters and nonfighters, and students threatened at school and those not threatened were compared. Students who used drugs/alcohol and fought in school had significantly lower scores (such as, a greater belief in using violence as a coping technique) than did students who did not engage in those behaviors.

Carrying and Using Weapons: A Survey of Minority Junior High School Students in New York City
Armstrong, B.; McCarthy, J.; Tiezzi, L.; Vaughan, R.; Walter, H.; and Waterman, P.
American Journal of Public Health: 86(4): 568-572, 1996

The purpose of this study was to explore weapon carrying among young, inner city adolescents. A survey was administered in fall 1993 to 2,005 predominantly Hispanic students (mean age=12.8 years) in three New York City junior high schools. The survey revealed that 21 percent of students reported personally carrying a weapon, and guns and knives were the weapons most commonly carried. Most of those who carried guns reported that they bought them. Forty-two percent said they had a family member or a close friend who had been shot. Boys and older students were more likely to report carrying weapons. Preventive efforts may need to begin before or on entry into junior high school rather than high school.

Characteristics of Students Who Bring Weapons to School
Bailey, S.; Flewelling, R.; and Rosenbaum, D.
Journal of Adolescent Health: 20(4): 261-270, 1996

This study explores the relationships among social, demographic, behavioral characteristics, and self-reported carrying of a weapon to school among middle school students. The results provide a statistical profile of youth most likely to bring weapons to school and help to identify characteristics that are related to this behavior. Study respondents were part of an ongoing randomized evaluation of a school-based drug use prevention program in Illinois. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 1,503 7th and 8th graders in spring 1992. Fifteen percent of respondents had brought some type of weapon to school in the past month. In a multivariate logistic regression model, being male, not living with both parents, not feeling close to parents, drinking heavily, participating in fights, damaging school property, and perceiving that at least a few other students brought weapons to school were significantly associated with weapon carrying. Victimization and fear for safety in school were not significantly associated with weapon carrying in the multivariate model. Study results suggest that both the structure and the dynamics of the family play an important role in weapon carrying behavior. Weapon carrying also appears to cluster with other deviant behaviors. Furthermore, the findings suggest that weapons are not brought to school because of a heightened need for protection, but rather in response to normative influences in school.

Gang Behavior in the Schools: Reality or Myth?
Parks, C.P.
Educational Psychology Review: 7(1): 41-68, 1996
This study examines gang behavior in schools and provides a gang profile. It discusses current trends in school-related gang behavior and describes reasons for gang membership and school gang violence; causes include school, family, community, and risk factors such as age and socioeconomic status. Strategies for addressing school-related gang behavior are considered, including (1) predisposing, enabling, and reinforcing strategies and (2) collaborative/interdisciplinary efforts.

Illicit Substance Use, Gender, and the Risk of Violent Behavior Among Adolescents
Auinger, P.; Byrd, R.; Dukarm, C.; and Weitzman, M.
Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine: 150(8): 797-801, 1996

Using cross-sectional analyses of the 1991 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Youth Risk Behavior Survey (data from public and private schools in the 50 States), this study investigates the relationship between substance use and violent behavior among 12,272 high school students. The focus was on the prevalence of weapon carrying and physicalfighting among male and female adolescents. A significant increase in the number of male and female adolescents carrying weapons and physically fighting was associated with all forms of substance use. Reports of carrying a weapon increased with recent alcohol consumption, use of marijuana, cocaine, and anabolic steroids. The prevalence of physical fighting was also significantly higher among adolescents who used illicit substances than among adolescents who denied drug use. The risk of violent behavior increased significantly, and was of equal magnitude, for adolescent females and males who were illicit substance users. Alcohol and illicit substance use are highly associated with an increased risk of violent behavior.

School-Associated Violent Deaths in the United States, 1992 to 1994
Lowry, R.; Kachur, S.; Kresnow, M.; et al.
Journal of the American Medical Association: 275(22): 1729-1733, 1994

This study is the first nationwide investigation of violent deaths associated with schools in the United States in order to quantify the risk of school-associated violent death and to identify epidemiologic features of these deaths. Using descriptive case series drawing upon police reports, medical examiners' records, interviews with police and school officials from the United States, and two online news data bases, study collaborators identified 105 school-associated violent deaths from July 1, 1992 through June 30, 1994. The estimated incidence of school-associated violent death was 0.09 per 100,000 students. Students in secondary schools, students of minority racial and ethnic backgrounds, and students in urban school districts had higher levels of risk. Homicide was the predominant cause of death, and firearms were responsible for a majority of the deaths. Most victims were students. Both victims and offenders tended to be young and male. The study found that school-associated violent deaths were more common than previously estimated.

Organizations and Internet Sites

American Federation of Teachers
555 New Jersey Avenue, NW.
Washington, DC 20001
202-879-4400
http://www.aft.org

American Psychological Association Help Center
http://helping.apa.org

Center for Substance Abuse Prevention
5600 Fishers Lane, Rockwall II
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-0365
http://www.samhsa.gov/csap

Center for the Prevention of School Violence
20 Enterprise Street, Suite 2
Raleigh, NC 27607
800-299-6054
http://www.ncstate.edu/cpsv

Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence
Campus Box 442
Boulder, CO 80309
303-492-8465
http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/

Decision Support System for Prevention of Substance Abuse
http://www.preventiondss.org

Handgun Control, Inc., and the Center to Prevent Handgun Violence
1225 I Street, NW. Suite 1100
Washington, DC 20005
202-898-0792

Join Together (Gun Violence Project)
441 Stuart Street
Boston, MA 02116
617-437-1500
http://www.jointogether.org/gv

Knowledge Exchange Network (KEN)
11426 Rockville Pike, Suite 405
Rockville, MD 20852
800-789-2647
http://mentalhealth.samhsa.gov

National Alliance for Safe Schools
P.O. Box 290
Slanesville, WV 25444-0290
304-496-8100
http://www.safeschools.org

National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information
P.O. Box 2345
Rockville, MD 20847
800-729-6686
http://ncadi.samhsa.gov

National Education Association
1201 16th Street, NW.
Washington, DC 20036
202-833-4000
http://www.nea.org

National Resource Center for Safe Schools
101 SW. Main, Suite 500
Portland, OR 97204
800-268-2275

National School Safety Center
141 Duesenberg Drive, Suite 11
Westlake Village, CA 91362
805-373-9977
http://www.nssc1.org

Parent Teacher Association (PTA)
330 N. Wabash Avenue, Suite 2100
Chicago, IL 60611
800-307-4782
http://www.pta.org/

Partnerships Against Violence Network
http://www.pavnet.org

Partnership for a Drug-Free America
405 Lexington Ave.
New York, NY 10174
212-922-1560
http://www.drugfreeamerica.org

Safe Schools/Healthy Students Action Center
1021 Prince Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
877-339-7747

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
Room 12-105, Parklawn Building
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857
301-443-4795
http://www.samhsa.gov

U.S. Department of Education
400 Maryland Avenue, SW.
Washington, DC 20202
800-USA-LEARN
http://www.ed.gov